Chinese Perception of Global Order

Chinese Perception of Global Order Chinese perception of global order and the position of China throughout history Introduction It is obvious that in the last few decades the People’s Republic of China is on the rise, both in economic and political terms. What remains unclear is how the increase in the Chinese domination will affect the global order. Three important questions arise from this uncertainty: will China be a US competitor? Can it propose a viable alternative to the existing order? How do past experiences shape the current approach of China to global order? The essay will rather focus not on how the world views China, but rather mostly how the Chinese themselves (first of all the elites and the scholars) view the role of their country in the past and present. At the beginning, just to underline the paramount importance of China to world economy and politics, a certain amount of data will be given. China is the first country in the world in terms of population (1,35 bln), third is GDP (12,61 trln in power purchasing power parity), second in exports (1.971 trln USD), third in import (1,53 trln), first in foreign exchange (3.3 trln USD), first in energy production and consumption, second in oil imports. Its military budget is second biggest (16 bln USD) (CIA World Factbook). China is one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Despite showing almost incredible economic growth, China is not a part of classical Western civilization and the capitalist core. Becoming in many ways a modern capitalist economy, being at the heart of world industrial production, its political views on the international arena and its place in it may not fully fall in line with the Western vision of China. To try to answer the set above questions, it is necessary to go back in history and see what the Chinese perception was, how and why it was transforming. Historical perceptions During the Quing dynasty, that ruled in China since the 17th century until 1912, we can speak of a honor-based system in approach to international (regional) relations. The Emperor and the elites maintained regional order through the formal recognition of superiority of the Chinese nation by the tributary states, thus providing stability and self-respect for the Chinese people. This system was broken by the intervention of the Western states in the 19th century: military defeats and national humiliation through unequal treaties made elites to seek for a way of adapting to the new reality. One approach was to study the international laws through the legal framework to be able to defend the country, exploiting the opportunities the system gave, that is mastering the western knowledge. The second approach lied in the so called Self-Strengthening movement, aimed at using technological modernization to strengthen China, without substantial modernization of the system itself. These develop ments, however, finished with the downfall of the Quing dynasty. The dynasty itself would later be seen as incapable to defend Chinese interests, responsible for humiliation. The Republican leader Sun Jatsen proposed a new concept instead, that was based on ethnocentric honor. He put a lot of efforts into reversing the unequal treaties to which China was bound. And indeed those treaties were revoked, but rather because of the political situation of the time. China remained politically and militarily frail, it had to rely on other states, and thus it was not fully sovereign, which was clearly shown during conflicts with Japan. Even more, it was perhaps of the fact that Japan – the aggressor was defeated that China would gradually rise to prominence in the region. The beginning of the communist era brought yet another shift in Chinese inner perception and approach towards foreign policy. First, those were the communist ideas on the new society (social justice) in China. From th ese ideas the foreign policy strongly depended. Later on, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong came with the concept of the three worlds. The concept divided the countries into three categories: First World (superpowers: the USA and USSR), Second World: allies of the superpowers (most of the European countries), and the Third World (non-aligned movement states). Mao’s idea was that China could become the leader of the Third World and thus reassert itself as a great power. Still, China at the time lucked economic instruments and military power to assert its dominance even at the regional level. Ultimately, the idea that non-aligned movement would serve for the shift of the international relations, and China would be at the core of this process, did not prove. With Mao’s death, the Chinese elites took a more firm, cautious stance on the international arena, focusing more on reforming the country and going in line with the great powers. Still, the time of the Cold War infl uenced Chinese foreign policy, with political elites having to chose with which superpower to ally. First it was the alliance with Moscow and from 1972 – closer relations with the USA. It as well kept a positive image for the developing world. With the end of the Cold War there has been expressed an opinion that the global domination of the USA should be limited and that the international order should be democratized, there appeared a debate among the scholars whether a unipolar or multipolar world is appropriate. Globalisation was seen as a process beneficial for the USA, in which China had to find its place. To sum up the past experiences and the way it shapes the current approach of China to global order, it can be said that the past times are seen as a period of humiliation and injustice, especially up until the communist times. Subsequently, in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, China perceived itself to be a victim in an unjust world of aggressive, powerful Western states. Contemporary Chinese perceptions of a just international order have been formed by such past experiences and contain a strong element of restitution. Its justice claims start with the Chinese state itself rather than with the needs of a broader global community, focusing on the internal damage. Its activity on the international arena can be explained by the need to return the prestige and honour that was presumably lost in the early 20-ies. Economic factors determining current perception of global order Modern Chinese perspectives on the global order and China’s role in it is a matter of debates between the political elites, as well as economic managers and scholars. Increased by the Chinese paramount economic importance and growing military power, as well as participation in the work of a number of regional and international organizations (WTO, UN and Security Council, Shanghai Cooperation Organization) there are several viable strategies present. What must be taken into account is that Chinese view and strategy is strongly intertwined with the country’s foreign economic policy. There can defined five major principles, characterizing Chinese economy and demanding adherence to them. First, is keeping open world markets for its exports, more than half of which are produced by factories that are wholly or partly owned by foreigners. The second principle is about securing access to international supplies of energy resources and natural resources, which serve a determining factor to the Chinese industrial development. The third principle demands China is to insulate its economy and national wealth from potentially destabilizing international risks. The fourth principle demands that new technologies are acquired, together with knowhow and skills. The fifth principle presupposes promotion of global expansion of Chinese own industries through foreign investment (de Jonquieres, 2011). One of the possible dangers to the development of the Chinese national economy is the fact that it strongly relies on the energy imports. Moreover, as most of the markets for extracting resources are occupied. The data proposes that the Chinese export 4.754 million bbl/day (2010 est.), making them second largest importer of crude oil in the world. It is fourth in the world in importing refined petroleum products: 1.571 million bbl/day (2011 est.). As well, China imports natural gas: 42.5 billion cu m (2012 est.), making them 13 largest importer. Chinese often have to focus on those not so favorable, for some reason abandoned by the West. As a big market player, furthermore, China cannot switch out of investments rapidly without risking substantial losses on them – and consequent fierce criticism from nationalistic sections of public opinion and the Communist party that view the reserves as precious patrimony. In search of an escape route and, in particular, of ways of reducing dependence on the US dollar, China is taking steps to promote international use of the renminbi. They include agreements with selected partners to use the currency to finance bilateral trade (chiefly China’s imports), the launch of an offshore ‘dim sum’ bond market in Hong Kong, and authorisation of limited purchases of domestic Chinese bonds by Japanese investors. Yet, estimated two-thirds of the foreign exchange reserves are held in USD-denominated assets while about a quarter of the reserves are in Euro. This amount was partially formed as a reward for economic success first of all export earning and capital inflows, but at the same time because f skewed social policies through the excess of domestic savings over investment. Generally, they do not contribute to national prosperity. And the issue of investing abroad is under question, partially because China wanted to invest in euro, while the eurozone is still getting out of crisis, partially because China is still too much dependent on the US dollar. As well, the measures to make renminbi convertible brought only to partial advancements. This shows how China may be vulnerable as it increases at the margin of those available markets. Chinese financial system remains underdeveloped. Both external economic factors and social domestic, urge Chinese policymakers for precaution when acting on the international arena. In this way, China remains strongly dependent on the international markets and cannot allow itself grave confrontation with the main trading partners and at the same t ime adhere to the current policy in international relation. Political factors determining current perception of global order. Aside from economic necessity, changes in the Chinese foreign policy there can be traced through bilateral and multilateral acts, as well as inner reforms. Thus, in 1996 there was adopted a new security concept, that surpassed the Cold War thinking and called for a new mentality. Later on, China provided economic assistance to countries affect whose economy was damaged by the Asian financial crisis of 1997-1999. On overall, there is a strong incentive for regional integration (ASEAN plus Three cooperation, the signing of the â€Å"Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea signed in 2002, treaty of Amity and Cooperation, signed in 2003). On the regional level, China aims to be on leading positions, which cannot be done without the agreement with the other countries in the region. One direction of cooperation at which China aims is naval: partner relations with the other states would spur Chinese ambitions and capacity of becoming a great naval power. Another strate gic Chinese partner in the region is Russia. A large part of Russia-Chinese cooperation is arranged through Shanghai Cooperation Organization. This cooperation is as well ambiguous as Russian leadership is aware of the Chinese economic expansion and the demographic shift in the Russian Far East. Thus, the idea of Chinese to establish a free trade zone among the member states of the SCO has not received further development. Yet, military cooperation of the countries is increasing. Official declarations of the Chinese politicians stress the necessity for promotion of peace and development, the need for multipolarization. Some scholars argue that this approach through the regional cooperation and cooperation with great powers (USA, EU, Russia, Japan) on the one hand, and increasing the role of the international organizations (first of all the UNO) is the actual Chinese strategy on the international arena. Such a strategy presupposes democratization of the international relations, furth er support of the concept of the sovereignty of the states. Ideally, the strategy of transcending would lead to slow but secure increase in Chinese importance and multipolar world. Chinese relations with the world hegemony – the USA, is a separate issue. Ever since the Cold War partner relations with China in political sphere slowly drifted from partnership to competition. Yet, political leaders of the USA varied in their opinion on Chinese-American relations. Those relations are at times worsened by several issue, which prove to retain constant character: Taiwan issue, relation s with Iran, devaluation of renminbi, protectionist measures of the Chinese government, violation of human rights in China with special attention to Tibet. Despite the enormous growth in trade and economic cooperation in the last decades, the USA leadership often shifts attention to military-political cooperation and confrontation. China, remaining the greatest developing country, while the USA is the main developed country, has the USA- Chinese relations as the primary focus, and its external policy in various issues is dependent on these relations. Scholars propose three main p ossibilities for further development of China-US relations: long-term accommodation, which presupposes gradual shift of balance between the two great states; long-term cooperation, that presupposes further mutually beneficial partnership without significant shift in the roles; and possible conflict, based on the supposition that the USA will never tolerate China as the second world hegemon. So far, whichever strategy is to take place, China accepts the unipolarity in the international relations. But this may not remain a status quo. Despite the often bright statements announced by the Chinese official, the current approach to global politics is centered around a strategy of bandwagoning and transcending. This means that first China adopts to the US leadership and serves as a partner in various spheres, while the second stage presupposes a peaceful and gradual transition to a more democratic (balanced) world order, with more active participation of the other powers and international organizations. Chinese concept of a new order includes promotion and defense of state sovereignty, support of the role of the UN. On the other hand, constant comparison of the position of China and the USA may not draw a full picture. The Chinese leadership itself emphasized the importance of developing stronger economic and political links with other countries, thus, so as not to remain â€Å"trapped† and tied mostly in their relations with the USA. The ever increasing role of China on the international arena make the other players to study more attentively the Chinese ideas and approach to the global order. And though the Chinese economic policies may go in line with the development of modern economic system, political suggestions may reveal a different picture, that in part center around Chinese history (especially of the last two centuries) and the ideas of retribution for national humiliation, demand for justice and equality, honorable place of China on the international arena, multilateralism; and Chinese internal policy. Although, as this essay suggests, there is no single approach to the global order and the future of the international relations proposed by the Chinese political elites and scholars, certainly whichever this approach be, it will to a large extent shape world politics in the next decades.

Mba Syllabus

Master of Business Administration (MBA) – 2 Years (Syllabus 2007) SEMESTER I DBA 1601 MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT – Evolution of Management thoughts – Contribution of Selected Management Thinkers – Various approaches to management – contemporary management practice – Managing in global environment – Managerial functions. UNIT II PLANNING – Importance of planning – TypesImportance of planning – Types of planning – decision making process – Approaches to decision making – Decision models – Pay off Matrices – Decision trees – Break Even Analysis.UNIT III ORGANISING – Departmentation – Span of ContDepartmentation – Span of Control – Delegation – Centralisation and Decentralisation – Commitees – Line and Staff relationships – Recent trends in organisation structures. eading – Leadership styl es and qualities – Communication – process and barriers. UNIT V CONTROLLING – Managements control systems – techniques – Types of control. TEXT BOOKS: * Stephen P. Robbins and David A. Decenzo, Fundamentals of Management, Pearson Education, Third Edition, 2001. *   J. S.Chandan, Management Concepts and Strategies, Vikas Publishing House, 2002. REFERENCES: * Tim Hannagan, Management Concepts and Practices, Macmillan India Ltd. , 1997. * Hellriegel, Jackson and Slocum, Management: A Competency-Based Approach, South Western, 9th edition, 2002. * Stewart Black and Lyman W. Porter, Management – Meeting New Challenges, Prentice Hall, 2000. * Koontz, Essentials of Management, Tata McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, 2001. * Bateman Snell, Management: Competing in the new era, McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2002. DBA 1602 STATISTICS FOR MANAGEMENT UNIT I PROBABILITY -Basic definitions and rules for probability, conditional probability, independent of events, Bayeâ€⠄¢s theorem, random variables, Probability distributions: Binomial, Poisson, Uniform and Normal distributions. UNIT II SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND ESTIMATION – Introduction to sampling distributions, sampling techniques, sampling distribution of mean and proportion, application of central limit theorem. Estimation: Point and Interval estimates for population parameters of large sample and small samples, determining the sample size. UNIT III TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS -Hypothesis testing: one sample and two samples tests for means and proportions of large samples (z-test), one sample and two sample tests for means of small samples (t-test), F-test for two sample standard deviations, Chi-square test for single samples standard deviation. Chi-square tests for independence of attributes and goodness of fit. UNIT IV NON-PARAMETRIC METHODS – Sign test for paired data. Rank sum test: Mann – Whitney U test and Kruskal Wallis test. One sample run test, rank correlation. UNIT V CORRELATION, REGRESSION AND TIME SERIES ANALYSIS – Correlation analysis, estimation of regression line.Time series analysis: Variations in time series, trend analysis, cyclical variations, seasonal variations and irregular variations. TEXT BOOKS: * Levin R. I. and Rubin D. S. , â€Å"Statistics for management†, 7th edition, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi, 2001. * Aczel A. D. and Sounderpandian J. , â€Å"Complete Business Statistics†, 5th edition, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Ltd. , New Delhi, 2004. * Anderson D. R. , Sweeney D. J. and Williams T. A. , â€Å"Statistics for business and economics†, 8th edition, Thomson (South – Western) Asia Pte. Ltd. , Singapore, 2002. REFERENCES: Levine D. M. , Krehbiel T. C. and Berenson M. L. , â€Å"Business Statistics: A First Course†, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd edition, New Delhi, 2002. * Hooda R. P. , â€Å"Statistics for Business and Economics†, 2nd edition, Macm illan India Ltd. , 2001. * Morse L. B. , â€Å"Statistics for Business and Economics†, HarperCollins college Publishers, New York, 1993. * Bowerman B. L. , Connel R. T. O’ and Hand M. L. , â€Å"Business Statistics in Practice†, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill / Irwin, 2001. * Gupta S. C. and Kapoor V. K. , â€Å"Fundamentals of MathematicalStatistics†,Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi, 2002.DBA1603 ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS OF BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT UNIT I NATURE AND SCOPE OF MACRO ECONOMIC ISSUES – Macro economic variables – national income, investment, savings, employment, inflation, balance of payment, exchange rate – circular flow of income – national income concepts – measurement of national income – role of economic planning – Indian economic planning. UNIT II ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL INCOME – Determination of national income – Keynesian perspective – multiplier – accelerator – busi ness cycle – the role of fiscal policy – Indian fiscal policy and experiences.UNIT III ANALYSIS OF MONEY MARKET – Demand and supply of money – money market equilibrium – the role of money – monetary policy – Indian perspectives. UNIT IV INTEGRATION OF COMMODITY AND MONEY MARKET – Analysis of inflation and unemployment – the role of economic policies – Indian experiences. UNIT V ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL SECTOR – International trade – trade multiplier – linkage model – the role of trade policy – analysis of performance of Indian economy in external sector. TEXT BOOKS: * Ahuja H. L. , Economic Environment of Business, Macroeconomic analysis, S.Chand & Company Ltd. , New Delhi, 2005. * Gupta, G. S. Macroeconomics, Theory and Applications, Tata McGraw-Hill publishing company Ltd. , New Delhi, 2001. REFERENCES: * Samuelson, Paul A. , and Nordhaus, W. D. , Economics, Tata McGraw-Hill pu blishing company Ltd. , New Delhi 2004. * Ruddar Datt and K. P. M. Sundharam, Indian Economy, S. Chand & Company Ltd. , New Delhi, 2003. * Government of India (Ministry of Finance), Economic Survey (Latest issue), New Delhi. DBA1604 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR UNIT I FOCUS AND PURPOSE -Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour – nature and scope – frame work – organizational behaviour models. UNIT II INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR – Personality – types – factors influencing personality – theories – learning – types of learners – the learning process – learning theories – organizational behaviour modification. Attitudes – characteristics – components – formation – measurement. Perceptions – importance – factors influencing perception – interpersonal perception. Motivation – importance – types – effects on work behavior. UNI T III GROUP BEHAVIOUR -Organization structure – formation – groups in organizations – influence – group dynamics – emergence of informal leaders and working norms – group decision making techniques – interpersonal relations – communication – control. UNIT IV LEADERSHIP AND POWER – Meaning – importance – leadership styles – theories – leaders Vs managers – sources of power – power centers – power and politics. UNIT V DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOURS – Organizational climate – factors affecting organizational climate – importance. Job satisfaction – determinants – measurements – influence on behavior.Organizational change – importance – stability Vs change – proactive Vs reactive change – the change process – resistance to change – managing change. Organizational development †“ characteristics – objectives – team building. Organizational effectiveness – perspective – effectiveness Vs efficiency – approaches – the time dimension – achieving organizational effectiveness. TEXT BOOKS: * Stephen P. Robins, Organisational Behavior, Prentice Hall of India, 9th edition, 2001. * Hellriegel, Slocum and Woodman, Organisational Behavior, South-Western, Thomson Learning, 9th edition, 2001. REFERENCES: Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, Organisational behavior, John Wiley, 7th edition, 2001. * Jit S. Chand, Organisational Behavior, Vikas publishing House Pvt. Ltd. 2nd edition, 2001. * Fred Luthans, Organisational Behavior, McGraw Hill Book Co. , 1998. * New Strom & Davis, Organisational behaviour, McGraw Hill, 2001. * Jaffa Harris and Sandra Hartman, Organisational Behaviour, Jaico, 2002. DBA1605 COMMUNICATION SKILLS UNIT I COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS – Systems approach, forms of business communication, managemen t and communication, factors facilitating communication. UNIT II COMMUNICATION PROCESS -Interpersonal perception, selective attention, feedback, variables, listening, barriers to listening, persuasion, attending and conducting interviews, participating in discussions, debates and conferences, presentation skills, paralinguistic features, oral fluency development. UNIT III BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE – Business letter. Memos, minutes, agendas, enquiries, orders, sales letters, notice, tenders, letters of application, letter of complaints. UNIT IV TECHNICAL REPORTS – Format, Choice of vocabulary, coherence and cohesion, paragraph writing, organization. UNIT V PROJECT REPORTS – Project proposal, project reports, appraisal reports.TEXT BOOKS: * Sharan J. Genrson and Steven M. Gerson – â€Å"Technical Writing – Process and Product† – Pearson Education – 2000. * Raymond V. Lesikar, John D. Pettit and Mary E. Flatley – Lesikass Bas ic Communication Tata McGraw Will 8th Edition – 1999. * Stevel. E. Pauley, Daniel G. Riordan – Technical Report Writing Today – AITBS Publishing & Distributors, India 5th edition – 2000. * Robert L. Shurter, Effective letters in business Thrid Ed. 1983. REFERENCES: * McGraith – Basic Managerial Skills for all Prentice Hall of India – 6th Edition 2002. * Halliday, M. A. Ky R. Hasan, Cohesion in English, Longman, London 1976.DBA1606 ACCOUNTING FOR MANAGEMENT UNIT I FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING 1. 1 Introduction to Financial, cost and management accounting, generally accepted accounting principles, conventions and concepts. The balance sheet and related concepts, the profit and loss account and related concepts/ Introduction to inflation accounting, introduction to human resources accounting. 1. 2 Accounting Mechanics – Basic records, preparation of financial statements, revenue recognition and measurement, matching revenues and expenses, In ventory pricing and valuation, Fixed assets and depreciation accounting, intangible assets. . 3 Analysis of financial statements – Financial ratio analysis, cash flow and funds flow statement analysis UNIT II COST ACCOUNTING AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING 2. 1 Cost Accounts – Accounting for manufacturing operations, classification of manufacturing costs, Accounting for manufacturing costs. Cost Accounting Systems: Job order costing, Process costing, Activity Based costing, Costing and the value chain, Target costing, Cost-Volume – Profit Analysis, Standard cost system. 2. 2 Management Accounting:Relevant Cost for decision making, Incremental analysis, Special order decision, Production constraint decisions, Make or buy decisions, sell, scrap or rebuild decisions, Joint product decision, Responsibility accounting and performance evaluation. Budget: As a planning and control tool. TEXT BOOKS: * M. Y. Khan & P. K. Jain – Management Accounting, Tata McGraw Hil l publishing company Ltd. , 2004. * M. A. Sahaf – Management Accounting (Principles & Pratice): Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi, 2004. REFERENCES: * R. S. N. Pillai & Bagavathi – Managemnt Accounting S. Chand & Co.Ltd. , New Delhi, (2002). * R. Narayanaswamy – Financial Accounting – A managerial perspective Prentice Hall India Pvt. , Ltd. , New Delhi. * Bhattacharya S. K. John Dearden Accounting for Managemnt text and cases – Vikas publishing house, New Delhi, 2000. * Charles T. Hornegren – Introduction to management accounting Prentice Hall, New Delhi, 2001. DBA1607 LEGAL ASPECTS OF BUSINESS UNIT I MERCANTILE AND COMMERCIAL LAW The Indian Contract Act 1872 – Essential of a valid contract, Void Agreements, Formation of a contract, performance of contracts, breach of contract and its remedies, Quasi contracts.The Sale of Goods Act 1930 – Sales contract, transfer of title and risk of loss, warranties in s ales contract, performance of sales contracts, conditional sales and rights of an unpaid seller. Negotiable instruments Act 1881 – Nature and requisites of negotiable instruments, transfer of negotiable instruments and liability of parties, enforcement of secondary liability, holder in due course, special rules for cheques and drafts, discharge of negotiable instruments.Agency – Nature of agency – How created, Agent’s authority and liability of principal and third party: Rights and duties of principal, agents and Third party, liability of principal or agents torts, termination of agency. UNIT II COMPANY LAW – Major principles – Nature and types of companies, Formation, Memorandum and Articles of Association, Prospectus, Power, duties and liabilities of Directors, winding up of companies, Corporate Governance. UNIT III INDUSTRIAL LAW – An Overview of Factories Act, Payment of Wages Act, Payment of Bonus Act, Minimum Wages Act, Industri al Disputes Act.UNIT IV INCOME TAX ACT AND SALES TAX ACT – Corporate Tax Planning, Overview of Sales Tax Act, including Value Added Tax. UNIT V CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT AND INTRODUCTION OF CYBER LAWS. TEXT BOOKS: * N. D. Kapoor, Elements of mercantile law – Sultanchand and company, New Delhi – Latest edition. * Sen & Mitra – Commercial and Industrial law – The world press, Pvt. Ltd. , Calcutta – 1996. REFERENCES: * P. P. S. Gogna, Mercantile Law, S. Chand & Co. Ltd. , New Delhi, 1999. * Dr. Vinod K. Singhania Direct Taxes Planning and Management (Latest edition). * Respective Bare Acts.

Persuasion in “12 Angry Men”

In his article, â€Å"The Necessary Art of Persuasion†, Jay Conger stated that persuasion is NOT about selling or convincing; rather, it is a learning and negotiating process. Good persuaders use and listen to ongoing and active discussions (or debates) to learn about their audience and include different opinions into a shared conclusion. In the movie â€Å"12 Angry Men†, juror number 8 (Henry Fonda) was not sure if evidence presented against a young defendant in court left reasonable doubt for a guilty conviction.The other jurors believed the presented facts and the defendant’s background warrants a guilty conviction. The movie showed how juror number 8 persuasively got the other jurors to review each fact logically, which led to an unanimous not guilty decision. Conger noted four essential steps use in effective persuasion. The steps will be use to analyze juror number 8 persuasion approach. The first essential step is establishing credibility with an audience. Conger noted that persuaders, to get support for an idea, have to build trust and confidence with their audience.A person can be persuasive by having a thorough knowledge and understanding of a subject matter OR relationships with people who trust the person’s motives. This is an important first step because people are allowing the persuader to persuade them and are committing time and resources towards the idea. Trust is essential. An audience needs to see and know if the persuader can execute sound judgment honestly. In the movie, juror number 8 displayed an ability to decipher real facts from questionable facts logically and sensibly when ask about the evidence presented during the trial.His character— unlike juror number 3, who was excitable in a negative way— was calm, approachable and straightforward. He listened to each juror’s opinions about the murder case and spoke respectfully and candidly about the burden of proof to juror number 2 (bank tell er). Juror number 8 gained credibility and trust from the other jurors using his character. The second essential step is framing arguments properly. It is critical to identify the tangible benefits and values that really matters to people being persuade.Effective persuaders consider what is important to an audience and lays his or her position to match common ground with the audience. This is a give-and-take process. Effective persuaders also use testimonies, past and current research, etc and readjust their argument to make them appealing to their audience. Persuaders must know an audience well enough to know what will capture their immediate and continued attention. Juror number 8 was in a situation where there is no common ground between him and the other jurors.All are from diverse backgrounds and uncomfortably brought together to deliberate the facts in an open-and-shut murder trial. Juror number 8, wanting to â€Å"just talk†, kept reconsidering and adjusting his positi on with the other juror’s positions about the defendant until a common was reach in the deliberation. Again, this is a give-and-take process and is effective if properly done right. The third essential step is presenting evidence to an audience. Conger stated that evidence alone will not convince an audience to support a position or an idea.Evidence can appear too abstract and not entirely informative. Persuaders, Conger noted, use stories, metaphors, analogies, examples, etc and use vivid language skillfully to paint a compelling big picture of their point of view. This approach is far more effective than stating facts in persuasion. In the movie, juror number 8 used different testimonies from specific jurors to pick apart each piece of evidence to support his argument for reasonable doubt. He used juror number 9 (old man) insights about the old man’s motives, and juror number 6 (painter) and his own experience hearing train noises.The old man, seeking attention for t he first time, assumed he heard voices. His motives and whether or not he really heard voices are questionable. He also used jurors’ number 4 (stock broker), 9 and 12 (ad man) comments about indentations on the 45 year old woman’s nose, indicating she wore eyeglasses. The woman’s eyesight is questionable and she is not a reliable witness. The other jurors’ testimonies gave a clearer and more convincing argument for reasonable doubt. The fourth essential step is connecting emotionally to a belief and with the audience.Good persuaders walk along a fine line balancing a strong commitment to a point of view (i. e. , belief) and not getting emotionally carried away. If balanced properly, an audience will see and believe the sincerity in a persuader’s message. Good persuaders also know the mood of their audience. Conger stated that effective persuaders â€Å"have a strong and accurate sense of their audience emotional state†¦and adjust the tone of their argument accordingly. † Persuaders gets a feel of their audience by listening to and gathering information from side conversations, or asking people with better insights about the audience’s mood.Good persuaders constantly analyze their audience’s behavior and use the proper tone in messages to match what the audience is feeling or expecting. Juror number 8 pretty much distanced himself from the other jurors. As he did, he listened to side conversations in the room, and observed the mood and temperament of each juror. He connected with each one accordingly and specifically. Juror number 3 (messenger service owner), for example, is very vocal and loose tempered. Juror number 8 approached him directly and firmly.He spoke respectfully and candidly about the burden of proof to juror number 2 (bank teller), who is timid and easily persuaded by other opinions. Juror number 8 constantly kept analyzing this audience— the 11 other jurors. Juror number 8 broad ly demonstrated Jay Conger’s essential steps to persuading people. In the movie, he mainly used persuasion faults by the other jurors to strengthen his position and to change their minds. And he kept studying and analyzing what the other jurors were saying about the facts. Persuasion is definitely a learning and negotiating process, and knowing your audience is half the battle.

Assessment for Special Education Standardized Testing

Assessment for special education is foundational for the success of identification, placement, and programming for children with special needs. Assessment can range from the formal--standardized, to the informal:--teacher-made assessments. This article will cover formal instruments for measuring students intelligence, achievement (or academic ability) and function. Testing to Assess Whole Districts or Populations Standardized testing is any testing which is given to large numbers of students under standard conditions and with standardized procedures. Usually, they are multiple choice. Today many schools administer a standardized achievement test to prepare for their states annual NCLB assessment. Examples of a standardized achievement tests include the California Achievement Test (CAT); Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), which includes the Terra Nova; Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) and Tests of Academic Proficiency (TAP); Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT); and Stanford Achievement Test (SAT.) These tests are normed, which means the results are compared across ages and grades statistically so that a mean (average) for each grade and age are created which are the Grade Equivalent and Age Equivalent scores that are assigned to individuals. A GE (Grade Equivalent) score of 3.2 represents how a typical third-grade student in the second month performed on the previous years test. State or High Stakes Testing Another form of standardized testing is the state assessment required by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). These are usually administered during a strictly regimented window in late winter. Federal law only permits 3% of all students to be exempted because of disabilities, and these students are required to take an alternate assessment, which can be simple; or dizzyingly convoluted. Individual Tests for Identification Individualized intelligence tests are usually part of the battery of tests a school psychologist will use to evaluate students when referred for evaluation. The two most commonly used are the WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) and the Stanford-Binet. For many years the WISC has been considered the most valid measure of intelligence because it had both language and symbol based items and performance-based items. The WISC also provided diagnostic information, because the verbal part of the test could be compared to the performance items, to show a disparity between language and spatial intelligence. The ​Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, originally the Binet-Simon Test, was designed to identify students with cognitive disabilities. The scales focus on language narrowed the definition of intelligence, which has been to some extent broadened in the most recent form, the SB5. Both the Stanford-Binet and WISC are normed, comparing samples from each age group. Individualized achievement tests are useful for assessing a students academic abilities. They are designed to measure both pre-academic and academic behavior: from the ability to match pictures and letters to more advanced literacy and mathematical skills. They can be helpful in assessing needs. The Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) is an achievement test which is administered individually to students. Using a flip book and a record sheet, it is easily administered and requires little time. The results can be very helpful in identifying strengths and weaknesses. The PIAT is a criterion based test, which is also normed. It provides age equivalent and grade equivalent scores. The Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement is another individualized test which measures academic areas and is appropriate for children from the ages of 4 to young adults to 20 and a half. The tester finds a base of a designated number of consecutive correct answers and works to a ceiling of the same incorrect consecutive answers. The highest number correct, minus any incorrect responses, provide a standard score, which is quickly converted into a grade equivalent or age equivalent. The Woodcock-Johnson also provides diagnostic information as well as grade level performances on discrete literacy and mathematical skills, from letter recognition to mathematical fluency. The Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills is another well-known, well-accepted criterion-based and normed individual achievement test. The Brigance provides diagnostic information on reading, math and other academic skills. As well as being one of the least expensive assessment instruments, the publisher provides software to help write IEP goals based on the assessments, called Goals and Objective Writers Software. Functional Tests There are several tests of life and functional skills. Rather than reading and writing, these skills are more like eating and talking. The best known is the ABLLS (pronounced A-bels) or Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills. Designed as an instrument for assessing students specifically for Applied Behavioral Analysis and discrete trial training, it is an observational instrument that can be completed through an interview, indirect observation, or direct observation. You can purchase a kit with many of the items required for certain items, such as naming 3 of 4 letters on letter cards. A time-consuming instrument, it is also meant to be cumulative, so a test book goes with a child from year to year as they acquire skills. Another well known and reputable assessment is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition. The Vineland is normed against a large population across ages. Its weakness is that it is comprised of parents and teachers surveys, which as indirect observations, have the weakness of being susceptible to subjective judgments. Still, when comparing language, social interaction and function at home with typically developing same-aged peers, the Vineland provides the special educator with a view of what the students social, functional and pre-academic needs are.